Journal of Sustainable Architecture and Civil Engineering

Guest Editor Preface

Targo Kalamees — Wed, 19 Jun 2024 00:00:00 +0300

It is a great pleasure that I preface this the second special issue of the Journal of Sustainable
Architecture and Civil Engineering, which comprises invited papers submitted to the 5th Forum
Wood Building Baltic, organized between 27 – 28 February 2024 in Tallinn, Estonia.
The Forum Wood Building Baltic 2024 conference was a fantastic opportunity for scientists and
practitioners to meet, to exchange experiences and learn from the best within the field. The conference
was organized by the Tallinn University of Technology, the Estonian Academy of Arts and
Forum Holzbau in collaboration with the Estonian Association of Civil Engineers and the Estonian
Woodhouse Association.

Development of Prefabricated Additional Insulation Elements for the Renovation of High-Rise Apartment Buildings

Peep Pihelo, Targo Kalamees — Wed, 19 Jun 2024 00:00:00 +0300

Prefabricated additional insulation elements have demonstrated success in renovating up to 5-storey apartment buildings. However, the unique challenges posed by high-rise buildings necessitate a closer examination of installation and long-term performance. In this study, we developed an additional insulation element specifically tailored for renovating high-rise apartment buildings and analysed its hygrothermal performance. To test the performance of the insulation elements, we installed a prototype and measured its performance at critical points along the external envelope. We calibrated a calculation model and applied building performance simulation software to explore various combinations of prefabricated elements. Our goal was to compare the associated risks and the key hygrothermal properties of these different material combinations within the insulation element. Critical points between the insulation layer and the wind barrier, as well as between the surface of the existing concrete panel wall and the vapour control layer of the additionally insulated exterior wall were analysed. The study's results indicate that the thermal resistance and water vapour permeability of the wind barrier layer, and the presence of an appropriate vapour control layer primarily influence the performance and moisture dry-out of a structure. Additionally, the study results indicate that the weather component has a higher impact than in lower buildings as the wind-driven rain loads are considerably higher in the upper parts of the high-rise buildings. The initial moisture (w = 110 kg/m³ at the height of the 9^th storey and w = 117 kg/m³ at the height of the 16^th storey) dry-out can last more than 3 years depending on the building type and materials used. This study underscores the importance of tailored solutions and vigilant moisture safety management in high-rise apartment building renovations, particularly when utilizing prefabricated additional insulation elements.

Prolonged Carbon Storage and CO2 Reduction by Circular Design with Wood

Harald Schwarzschachner, Sebastian Hernandez — Wed, 19 Jun 2024 00:00:00 +0300

The benefits of circularity and biogenic carbon storage are often overseen. This study links the circular design of buildings with prolonged biogenic carbon storage. Circularity in architectural design can involve extending the service life of a building frame, whilst forests grow back and store more carbon. Following this approach, Stora Enso has developed a mixed-use building concept with flexible and adaptable structures. Static and dynamic life cycle assessment (LCA) has been carried out to assess different scenarios, modelling and quantifying its potential benefits regarding whole life carbon.

While whole life carbon is lower in all timber scenarios compared to conventional concrete buildings, dynamic LCA makes clear the benefits of carbon storage and carbon sequestration. Total emissions, considering a reference service life of 50 years, are 2,84 kg CO2-eq./m² floor area/year, considering biogenic carbon storage and carbon sequestration in regrowing forests. An increase of the building lifetime to 80 years aligns with a longer rotation time of forest trees, resulting in whole life carbon of -0,09 kg CO2-eq./m² floor area/year. This demonstrates that the effective implementation of built-in flexibility and adaptability can extend the service life of a building, unlocking environmental benefits of biogenic carbon storage of wood products in buildings.

ELEMENTerial – Construction System Study for CLT Offcuts

Siim Tuksam, Sille Pihlak — Wed, 19 Jun 2024 00:00:00 +0300

The ELEMENTerial research project focuses on the development of an innovative design and construction system for Cross-Laminated Timber (CLT) offcuts. CLT construction, while offering advantages for automation, raises concerns about offcut waste, which constitute 5-10% of the material production in Estonian CLT timber industry. This research highlights the importance of aligning timber construction with circular economy principles by effectively utilising offcuts. The study focuses on the development of a design method, creating a versatile and holistic construction system that breaks away from traditional orthogonal designs. Algorithmic tools are employed to streamline the design process and to help manage the complexities of working with smaller elements. The outcomes include a geometric strategy, offering variable configurations for assembly in walls, floors, ceilings and openings. The research demonstrates the potential to automate and pre-rationalise the design process, providing design freedom beyond orthogonal constraints and shell structures. The applications range from shelters to facade systems, building extensions to potentially large-scale construction systems. This study offers environmental benefits and design flexibility in the construction industry. It holds a potential to guide the sector towards reduced waste and increased material efficiency, fostering sustainability and economic value from waste materials. The prospects for future research include further automation, refinement of connection details, and efficiency in production and material usage.

Determining Moisture Content of Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL)

Inger Merete Birkeland, Erlend Andenæs, Lars Gullbrekken, Tore Kvande — Wed, 19 Jun 2024 00:00:00 +0300

Wooden load-bearing structures are becoming more common as an eco-friendly alternative to steel and concrete in large buildings. In these buildings, laminated veneer lumber (LVL) is increasingly used in structural building elements, particularly in the flanges of wooden I-beams. However, as for all products made from wood, proper moisture control is important to ensure the long-term integrity of the elements. The purpose of this study is to investigate the moisture properties of LVL and the correlation between moisture sensor readings and the actual moisture content determined from accurate weighing of the samples. Laboratory measurements were made of two different wooden materials using 20 identical sensors. The test was conducted on samples of LVL flanges delivered by the Norwegian wood production company Hunton, and on samples of pine lumber. The moisture sensors were delivered by Omnisense. For the LVL samples, the test results show that the resistance values given by the resistance method were too high compared to the more accurate gravimetric method. Conversely, the measured values were too low for the pine samples. LVL also had a faster moisture sorption than pine under the same moisture conditions. The glue between the veneer layers affects the electric conductivity of the wood in LVL and interrupts the readings. The glue might also affect the moisture sorption.

Assessment of the Renovation Need, Material Authenticity, and the Cultural and Environmental Value of Historic Apartment Building Neighbourhoods

Wed, 19 Jun 2024 00:00:00 +0300

Preserving the built heritage, maintaining the original exteriors of historic apartment buildings, and achieving today’s living standards and ambitious environmental objectives require a multidisciplinary approach encompassing cultural, economic, legal, social, environmental and historical factors. This study aims to assess the need for renovation and the cultural and environmental value of historic apartment buildings. Architects, conservators and civil engineers have been involved to evaluate the authenticity of materials and forms, their technical condition and suitability to the historic urban milieu across 19 building components. Our findings reveal significant replacement activities in various elements such as roof coverings, roof eaves, façades, stairwell windows, stairwells, exterior doors, and window and frame distribution, with a particular focus on materials rather than geometry. Notably, there is often a lack of original materials of the windows. When comparing materials and geometries, we observed a higher frequency of material replacement. While the immediate need for intervention may not be urgent, many historic apartment buildings are at risk of imminent material deterioration, necessitating timely renovation. The deep renovation approach, which extends the service life, enhances energy efficiency and indoor climate and restores the exterior aesthetics, offers a threefold benefit. However, aligning the current reconstruction requirements with the preservation of milieu values may remain ambiguous, leading homeowners to resist or overlook these obligations. Consequently, a culture of step-by-step (staged) renovation emerges, contributing to an eclectic appearance of the historically valuable area and promoting the use of inappropriate materials. In conclusion, this research emphasizes the importance of a holistic approach to building renovation, which yields architecturally superior and technically sustainable outcomes. The current study underscores the necessity for a shift in the authorized heritage discourse in Estonia. Rather than primarily imposing restrictive measures on construction and renovation projects, the focus should pivot towards effective communication of historical values. It is crucial to provide support and guidance (not restrictions) to building owners, designers and builders in this regard.

Moisture Safety in Prefabricated Roof Renovations: Causes and Strategies

Georg-Mihkel Kodi , Kristo Kalbe, Targo Kalamees, Peep Pihelo — Wed, 19 Jun 2024 00:00:00 +0300

Achieving carbon neutrality by 2050 requires extensive energy renovation of the existing building stock. In this study we focus on deep renovation with prefabricated insulation elements as a potential solution to attain the required renovation speed and volume. The use of such elements without a proper moisture safety strategy can, however, lead to moisture-related problems, including mould growth. Here we examine the causes of moisture and mould damage in a case study of a building that has been renovated to near-zero energy standards using prefabricated insulation elements.

The study elucidates the reasons for the moisture damages detected and proposes two moisture safety strategies to improve the situation. The first strategy emphasizes the importance of ensuring dry construction conditions by either using a full temporary roof or avoiding rainfall during installation. The second strategy addresses localized water damage to the attic floor and involves the use of protective measures, active ventilation and a correct installation sequence. In the case of local moisture damage, the required amount of ventilation air flow during summer is 0.5–0.55 l/(s·m²). During cooler periods, heating is needed.

The employed methods include modelling the case-study building with the IDA Indoor Climate and Energy software, as well as mould growth risk assessment based on temperature and relative humidity measurements. The results highlight the effectiveness of both strategies in preventing mould growth if applied correctly, and emphasize the need for thorough planning, moisture safety regulations and rapid response to ensure successful renovation with prefabricated insulation units.

The study provides valuable information on moisture safety strategies for serial renovations with prefabricated elements. The existence and proper implementation of a moisture safety strategy is important for achieving the desired energy performance goals while maintaining building durability and occupant health, and it needs to be applied throughout the chain of site management: from the main contractor down to the skilled worker.

Tool Development for Life Cycle Cost (LCC) of Wooden Building Envelope

Roja Modaresi, Magnus Olai Landaas — Wed, 19 Jun 2024 00:00:00 +0300

The main goal of this study is to provide a platform for LCC calculation rules for timber buildings that comply with the Standards EN 16627:2015 and EN 15643-4, by employing a refined technical service life estimation. The database includes economic data for the building envelope and structural elements at the product level. In addition, the use phase of the building is included as maintenance, and the relevant economic data related to design failure, user preferences, and technical defects due to moisture. This model is under development as part of the WoodLCC project, with partners from Germany, Sweden, Norway, Estonia, Slovenia, and Austria, aiming to implement advanced methods to calculate accurate technical service life estimations and give the users the opportunity to evaluate the differences in building and maintenance costs based on different parameters.

In this study, a data structure is created based on the necessary indicators and parameters for LCC calculation. An Excel model is developed, which will be used as a base for a software development in the WoodLCC project. Only wooden material is being considered for building envelope and bearing system. All material price data and installation times for each element is taken from a Norwegian dataset. This data is then modified for the selected European country using country specific labour cost- and material cost-indexes, convertible to the inquired currency. Inflation and escalation rates are considered for calculating the maintenance or repair that will occur in future. Material prices for different species and modification are included.

Improved service life input data will enable more precise LCC for wood-based products, resulting in improved economic impact. LCC finds common acceptance only if reliable input data are available and complemented with knowledge about user expectations. We will evaluate the possibility of future improvements of such models.

Hygrothermal Performance of Wooden Structures in Combination with Bio-Based Insulation in Future Climates in Belgium

Anke Blommaert, Nathan Van Den Bossche, Marijke Steeman — Wed, 19 Jun 2024 00:00:00 +0300

In Europe, 40% of the total energy requirements relates to the energy consumption in the construction sector. The awareness resulted in the use of bio-based materials thanks to their small carbon footprint (Zhao et al. 2017).

The aim of this study is twofold. The first objective is to gain a better understanding of the durability of traditional insulation materials such as mineral wool and PUR versus bio-based insulation (cellulose) in timber frame constructions and CLT constructions. The second objective is to evaluate to which extent this durability depends on various levels of climate change impact we might face based on the future greenhouse gas concentrations.

This study uses the Mould Index as an indicator for possible degradation of the insulation layer. The mould Index is calculated using temperature and relative humidity derived from HAM simulations in Delphin 6.1.4. These simulations are done for different wall assemblies and different climate scenarios for Brussels.

The results show that climate change has a negative effect on the durability of the outer part of the insulation material and that this effect is higher for cellulose than for mineral wool in timber frame construction.

Effect of Corn Stover Ash Reinforced with Cabuya Fiber on the Mechanical Properties of Concrete

Wed, 19 Jun 2024 00:00:00 +0300

Currently, organic wastes are an environmental problem generating pollution, bad odors and accumulation of residues in northern Peru, among these products are corn stover and cabuya, predominant materials in the area. Therefore, this research focuses on determining the effect of optimum temperature and optimum percentage of corn stover ash (CSA) reinforced with different proportions of cabuya fiber (CF) on the mechanical properties of concrete. Two conventional designs of standard concrete called A and B (21 and 28 MPa) were made, to these designs were added percentages of CSA in 7%, 10%, 12% and 15% by substitution of the weight of cement to determine the optimum percentage, which was reinforced with percentages of cabuya fiber in 0.5%, 1%, 1.5% and 2% in volume of the concrete. The results showed that the optimum mix was A/B+7CSA, evidencing an improvement in compressive strength of 2.7% as opposed to the optimum CSA +CF hybrid mix, where it was observed that its mechanical properties of compressive strength, tensile strength, flexural strength and static modulus of elasticity decreased to 15.8%, 11.30%, 5.14% and 10.5%, respectively. It is concluded that corn stover ash reinforced with cabuya fiber does not positively influence the mechanical properties of concrete; however, it is an environmentally sustainable alternative to be used in non-structural concrete.

Integration of Building Information Modeling and Artificial Intelligence of Things in the Post-War Reconstruction and Renovation of Buildings

DMYTRO CHASHYN, YELYZAVETA KHURUDZHI , MINDAUGAS DAUKŠYS — Wed, 19 Jun 2024 00:00:00 +0300

The construction industry of Ukraine shall not only recover but also upgrade, enhance and reevaluate existing building projects. Further research raises two pertinent issues for Ukraine - retrofitting and reconstructing destroyed infrastructure. The study's priority objective is to restore damaged and ruined buildings rapidly. It may be achieved using the creation of recovery methods in Ukraine and countries in the post-conflict stage of development. The research involves creating technical specifications for the product of a new version of the automated construction management system, which provides working with the software complexes based on the BIM model. The system implies using Building Information Modeling (BIM) and Artificial Intelligence of Things (AIoT) to make organization of reconstruction faster, better and less costly. The research has been held to demonstrate the viability of the approach. In addition, we acquire a reduction of energy consumption and an increase in the lifespan of the building by choosing retrofitting methods. The efficacy of BIM and IoT technologies enables the integration of contemporary demands to diminish design time and costs. These technologies also optimise design solutions by assimilating knowledge from previous building and structure designs. Additionally, they offer essential information support for the entire investment project life cycle.

Forms and Elements of Recent Ethno-Acculturation Preferences of Yoruba Architecture in Southwest Ngeria; A Case Study of Abeokuta Historic City Core

Folahan Anthony Adenaike, Joseph Akinlabi Fadamiro, Akunnaya Pearl Opoko — Wed, 19 Jun 2024 00:00:00 +0300

The evolution of indigenous architecture for any social culture is usually sectionalised into thresholds of different but succinct architectural styles. The continued survival of any indigenous style is the ability to accommodate changes in components while preserving the culture of the people. The postmodern and contemporary architectural styles are the most recent defined patterns that have been assimilated into the Yoruba areas of Southwest Nigeria. Existing literature on Yoruba architecture have not addressed the delineation of the current threshold of the indigenous style. In a bid to address this problem, this research set out to define the current outlook of the Yoruba indigenous architecture through the forms and elements that have been acculturised from the foreign styles. This was achieved by locating the study in a historic city centre where the social culture is preserved in the community and the buildings. Urban upgrades carried out in the area stimulated the renovation and fresh construction of buildings where they occurred in the otherwise sedentary community. The older buildings in the sedentary parts of the study area and the newer structures in the upgraded areas provided two different thresholds in the architectural evolution for comparison of the constituents of the building patterns. After defining the study area, building counts were carried out to determine numbers in the upgraded and sedentary areas. This helped to calculate the sample sizes for direct observation guided by a schedule. Questionnaire was administered to evaluate residents’ opinions on the subject. Descriptive statistics were used to identify the trends in typologies and preferences while existing literature was used to explain the chronology of styles and the architectural evolution of the area. The research identified the current natures of the forms and elements being adopted in the area and the reasons for their adoption. It concluded that the forms have been modified to suit the social culture and the climate.

Changing Socio-Spatial Identities. The case of the Asia Minor Refugee Urban Settlements in the Greater Athens-Piraeus Region in Greece

Evgenia Tousi — Wed, 19 Jun 2024 00:00:00 +0300

The paper presents the main findings of a research conducted in the metropolitan region of the capital of Greece, focusing on the Asia Minor post-refugee urban neighborhoods. The research took place in 2009-2014, with parts of it updated during 2016-2019 and 2020-2023. The main findings of the research outline the issue of changing socio-spatial identity, emphasizing on the socio-economic discrepancies in the housing sector, as met within the urban refugee settlements. The paper explores the contemporary physiognomy of the post-refugee Attica that faces dereliction and demolitions of the old refugee houses. To explain the significance of these settlements, the paper combines literature review and field work. Field work includes original cartographic depiction, quantitative and qualitative methods. The aim of the paper is to provide findings on the contemporary situation of the urban refugee settlements of Attica, describing representative cases within the spectrum of urban socio-spatial identity transformation.

Towards Decreasing Encroachments on Conserved Historic Buildings, Users Participation as an Approach: The Case of Youth Center- Sebastia

Mohammed Itma, Zahraa Zawawi — Wed, 19 Jun 2024 00:00:00 +0300

This paper examines what, why, and how users’ behavior can cause encroachments on historic buildings after conservation. It also introduces users’ participation in the conservation process as an approach to containing these encroachments. With this aim, this paper reviews the literature and extracts three approaches to user participation in the conservation process, which are social-benefits, economic-benefits, as well as emotional-needs. To examine the possible role of each approach in containing the negative practices by users, the youth center in Sebastia, Palestine has been analyzed as a case study in which the process of the encroachment of the users of these types of buildings and the reasons behind them have been studied. In addition to the former, this paper presents the users’ role in the deterioration of historic value and the visual appearance of the building within the short period of conservation. Based on this analysis, it was found that the encroachments have manifested in different forms, such as unsystematic interventions, sporadic neglect, and vandalism. Such intrusions on these structures are a direct result of not involving users in the conservation process. Thus, the paper discusses involving users in the former process to limit harmful practices using suitable approaches including users.

The Preventive Indicators for Evaluating the Design of Existing Buildings as Epidemic-Resilient Architecture: A Theoretical Framework

Ahmed M. Hameed Al-Delfi, Abdullah S. Salman — Wed, 19 Jun 2024 00:00:00 +0300

The recent outbreak of epidemics created health challenges and emerging requirements that revealed weaknesses and increased alerts about the contribution of the existing buildings’ design to increasing the possibility of epidemics’ spread. Those risks necessitated focusing on designing more effectively resilient buildings to epidemics. The study focuses on improving the safety aspects of existing building design from an architectural design perspective. Therefore, this study proposes a theoretical framework for a set of preventive indicators to evaluate the existing building design as a resilient architectural system in its response to epidemics. These indicators have been identified and selected based on an extensive examination of the literature and the most effective practices for preventing and controlling epidemics. Those preventive indicators covered all the various aspects of the design of the existing building, including the effectiveness of social distancing, indoor air quality, indoor environmental quality, control engineering and preventive. Using these indicators, architecture professionals and policymakers can evaluate the effectiveness of existing buildings in reducing the spread of epidemics and making the necessary improvements to create a more resilient environment. The proposed preventive indicators aim to contribute to developing epidemic-resilient architecture and promote the creation of healthier and safer living environments for occupants.

Supralocal Role of Medium to Large Scale Urban Parks, in Greater Athens Region in Greece. Issues of Meso Car Dependence During the Covid-19 Pandemic

Evgenia Tousi, Athina Mela — Wed, 19 Jun 2024 00:00:00 +0300

This paper investigates the supralocal role of medium to large-scale urban parks in Attica, Greece, during the COVID-19 pandemic. The research includes literature review and fieldwork. A statistical sample of 783 individuals was designed to investigate the community’s outlook towards urban parks in Attica. The study establishes a theoretical framework based on the available literature that focuses on factors influencing individuals' willingness to commute so as to reach urban parks. These factors may include household characteristics, green space characteristics, and local accessibility. The paper also examines engaging factors for distant park use, such as relaxation, physical exercise, and social contact. The study adds to existing knowledge on the role of medium to large scale urban parks in Attica, by providing findings on visitation patterns during the pandemic. One of the study’s most important finding is the car dependent travel mode which should be taken into consideration so as to promote sustainable urban mobility.

Methods, Area Ratio and Plants of Biowall to Induce Atmospheric Comfort: A Review

Tri Susetyo Andadari, Prasasto Satwiko, L.M.F. Purwanto, Rudyanto Soesilo — Wed, 19 Jun 2024 00:00:00 +0300

Biowall is one of the several innovative strategies people use to build a comfortable interior atmosphere with living plants. This research attempts to trace the gaps in the previous analysis as a 'state of the art' with a literature review method by focusing on the biowall method, area ratio and types of plants. Biowall performance is mainly related to the influence of thermal, visual, audial, and respiratory comfort. It is an essential topic used to induce atmospheric interiors, such as temperature, humidity, light intensity, sound insulation and absorption, CO₂, HCHO, VOC, and particulate levels. The results showed that the empirical methods used were actual scale-up and down experiments, laboratories in test chambers, simulation with specific software, and case research on in-situ biowall. The comparison between the biowall and room size varied significantly due to the absence of a legal basis and reasons. Ferns and succulents were the most widely used species to induce atmospheric comfort. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct further research on biowall physical comfort based on multisensory simultaneously and determine its standard dimension and digital integration. Subsequent researchers must further discuss home-scale biowall acceleration and utilization of food-medicinal plants.